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Human and animal communication
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Animals communicate: bees dance, birds sing and monkeys call. But is that language? Aitchison (1983) set out criteria to decide.
Aitchison's (1983) criteria
Aitchison listed ten features of language. She argued that animals show some of them, for example using sounds, arbitrariness (signals that do not look or sound like what they mean) and some cultural transmission (learning from others).
But four features are usually described as unique to humans:
Semanticity: using symbols (words) that carry meaning and can refer to whole groups of things.
Displacement: talking about things that are not here, in the past, the future, or imaginary.
Structure dependence: using grammar: the order and structure of words changes the meaning ('dog bites man' versus 'man bites dog').
Creativity: making an endless number of new sentences that have never been said before.
But four features are usually described as unique to humans:
Semanticity: using symbols (words) that carry meaning and can refer to whole groups of things.
Displacement: talking about things that are not here, in the past, the future, or imaginary.
Structure dependence: using grammar: the order and structure of words changes the meaning ('dog bites man' versus 'man bites dog').
Creativity: making an endless number of new sentences that have never been said before.
Similarities and differences
Similarities: humans and animals both communicate to warn of danger, find mates, mark territory and keep groups together. Both can use sound and body signals, and some animal signals are learned.
Differences: animal communication is usually about the here and now (no displacement), uses a fixed, limited set of signals (little creativity) and lacks grammar (little structure dependence).
Example: vervet monkeys have different alarm calls for different predators, but they cannot use them to talk about a predator seen yesterday.
Differences: animal communication is usually about the here and now (no displacement), uses a fixed, limited set of signals (little creativity) and lacks grammar (little structure dependence).
Example: vervet monkeys have different alarm calls for different predators, but they cannot use them to talk about a predator seen yesterday.
Evaluating the criteria
Strength: clear criteria make it possible to compare humans and animals systematically.
Weaknesses: the criteria are based on human language, so animals may be judged unfairly. Some studies of apes taught sign language claim limited signs of creativity, though this is disputed. Researchers may disagree about whether a behaviour meets a criterion.
Weaknesses: the criteria are based on human language, so animals may be judged unfairly. Some studies of apes taught sign language claim limited signs of creativity, though this is disputed. Researchers may disagree about whether a behaviour meets a criterion.
A honeybee dance tells other bees where flowers are. Does this show displacement? Explain.
- Displacement means communicating about things not present.
- The flowers are elsewhere, so the dance shows a limited form of displacement, but bees cannot use it creatively to talk about anything else.
Answer: It shows a limited, fixed form of displacement, but not the creativity of human language.
Aitchison (1983) listed criteria for language. Four are usually seen as unique to humans: semanticity, displacement, structure dependence and creativity. Animal communication tends to be about the here and now, fixed and without grammar.
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