Why were the treaties of the 1850s called 'unequal'?

Foreigners gained extraterritoriality and Japan could not set its own import duties

What was extraterritoriality?

The right of foreigners to be tried in their own courts, not Japanese ones

From unequal treaties to a modern state, 1854 to 1890

In 40 years Japan went from a divided land of samurai to a centralised state with a conscript army, factories and a constitution. This lesson looks at the reforms step by step.

International GCSE · 4HI1
About 17 minutes

Practise this lesson free (7 questions)

The unequal treaties

The Treaty of Kanagawa (1854), signed after Commodore Perry's return, opened two ports to American ships.
The Harris Treaty (1858) opened more ports to trade and gave Americans extraterritoriality (the right to be tried by their own courts) and low, fixed import duties. Similar treaties followed with Britain, France, Russia and the Netherlands.
Anger at these 'unequal treaties' helped bring down the shogun.

The Meiji Restoration

In January 1868 power was restored to the young Emperor Meiji. The Charter Oath (1868) promised that knowledge would be sought throughout the world.
In 1871 the old feudal domains were abolished and replaced by prefectures run by the central government.
The Iwakura Mission (1871 to 1873) toured the USA and Europe to study Western states.
A land tax in money (1873) gave the government a steady income.

The end of the samurai and a constitution

Conscription (1873) created a national army of ordinary men. In 1876 samurai lost their rice stipends and the right to carry swords.
The Satsuma Rebellion (1877), led by Saigo Takamori, was crushed by the conscript army: the samurai era was over.
The Meiji Constitution (1889) set up an elected Diet, which first met in 1890, but sovereignty stayed with the emperor.
The Imperial Rescript on Education (1890) taught loyalty to the emperor in every school.

Worked example

Explain why the Satsuma Rebellion of 1877 was important.

Identify: it was the last major samurai revolt, led by Saigo Takamori.
Explain: the new conscript army of commoners defeated the samurai.
Significance: it proved the reforms would stick and ended the samurai as a military class.

Answer: The conscript army's victory showed that the Meiji state, not the samurai, now held military power.

Key idea

Kanagawa (1854) and Harris (1858) treaties were 'unequal': extraterritoriality and low tariffs. Meiji Restoration (1868), Charter Oath, domains abolished (1871), Iwakura Mission (1871 to 1873), land tax and conscription (1873). Samurai lost stipends and swords (1876); Satsuma Rebellion crushed (1877). Meiji Constitution (1889), Diet (1890), Rescript on Education (1890).

Key words

Unequal treaties: Treaties forced on Japan and China by Western powers, giving those powers trading and legal privileges.
Samurai: Japan's hereditary warrior class, which lost its special privileges during the Meiji reforms.
Meiji Restoration: The return of power to the Japanese emperor in 1868, followed by rapid modernisation.
Conscription: Compulsory military service. In Britain it began in 1916 and again in 1939.
Meiji Constitution (1889): Japan's first constitution, based partly on Germany's. The emperor was sacred and held supreme power, and an elected parliament, the Diet, was created.
Shogun: The military ruler of Japan under the Tokugawa, until 1867.

All GCSE and International GCSE History key terms and definitions →

Quick check

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Extra practice

2 more questions

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Which right did unequal treaties take from Japan?
1. The right to set its own import duties
2. The right to have an emperor
3. The right to farm
4. The right to speak Japanese
Show the answer
Answer: The right to set its own import duties
Tariffs were fixed by treaty.
Why did Japan resent extraterritoriality?
1. Foreigners who broke the law in Japan escaped Japanese courts
2. It gave Japan colonies
3. It made Japan rich
4. It banned foreigners
Show the answer
Answer: Foreigners who broke the law in Japan escaped Japanese courts
It was a sign of inferior status.

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Sources and references

Checked by the GCSE-ready editorial team, 16 October 2026. Last updated 2 October 2026. Spotted a mistake? Tell us and we will fix it.