Geo 2026

1. Start here

2. Economic activity

3. Energy

4. Coasts (up to erosional landforms)

5. Geographical skills

Key terms (168)

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Economic activity

Automation

The use of machines and AI to do work automatically, which reduces employment, especially in manufacturing.

Black-market transaction

The illegal buying and selling of goods or services, hidden from the government, such as selling smuggled goods.

Boserup's theory

Ester Boserup (1965), an optimist, believed that however much the population increased, people would always find new ways, such as new technologies, to increase the resources available, so resources would not run out.

Clark-Fisher model

A model (also called the sector model) that explains how a country's employment structure changes over time as it develops, through pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial stages.

Club of Rome

A group whose report The Limits to Growth (1972) argued that limits to global population growth would be reached within about 100 years if development continued at the 1970s rate, but that if population growth was regulated, a sustainable balance between population, development and resources could be reached.

Crisis point

The point on a Malthus graph where population overtakes food supply, leading to famine, disease or war.

Deindustrialisation

The decline of manufacturing industries in a country, often due to automation, globalisation or shifts to service-based economies.

Demographic change

A change in a population's structure, such as a young or an ageing population, which changes the types of jobs needed.

Economic activity

Any action that involves the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

Economic development

The improvement of living standards and economic health of a country through industrial growth, infrastructure and income generation.

Emerging country

A country whose economy is developing quickly, such as India or China.

Employment structure

The proportion of people employed in each of the different economic sectors in a given country or region.

Formal economy

Economic activities that are officially recorded, regulated and taxed by the government.

GDP (gross domestic product)

The total value of goods and services produced within a country in a given year.

GDP per capita

The total value of goods and services a country produces in a year, divided by its population.

Globalisation

The increasing interconnectedness of economies and societies through trade, investment, technology and cultural exchange.

High-income country (HIC)

A wealthy country dominated by the tertiary and quaternary sectors, such as services and technology.

Human factor

An influence created by people, such as labour supply, transport, markets, cost, politics or technology.

Industrial stage

The second stage of the Clark-Fisher model, when the secondary sector grows as industrialisation takes place, while primary sector employment declines.

Industrialisation

The process of a country or region developing its secondary sector and shifting from an agriculture-based economy to a manufacturing-based economy.

Informal economy

Economic activities that are not officially recorded or regulated, often including street vending, unregistered labour and black-market transactions.

Infrastructure

The basic facilities a country or area needs, such as roads, ports, airports and power stations.

Low-income country (LIC)

A country with low incomes that relies heavily on the primary sector, such as farming and mining.

Malthus' theory

Thomas Malthus (1798), a pessimist, believed population would grow faster than resources such as food, so famine, disease and war would reduce the population until it could be supported by the resources available again.

Market accessibility

Being close to customers, which businesses prefer, such as shopping malls in urban areas.

Mechanisation

Using machinery and improved technology to do work, so fewer workers are needed.

Megacity

A city with more than 10 million people.

Middle-income country (MIC)

A country where the secondary sector is growing because of industrialisation.

Migration

The movement of people from one place to live in another.

Multiplier effect

The process by which an initial investment or increase in spending leads to greater overall economic activity and job creation.

Negative multiplier

A downward spiral: job losses mean less spending, so more businesses close and more jobs are lost.

Optimum population

When population and resources are in balance, so the population is sustainable.

Outsourcing

The practice of a company relocating production or services to another country to reduce costs.

Overpopulation

When there are not enough resources for the population.

Physical factor

A natural influence, such as climate, relief, land or natural resources, on where an activity is located or how much energy is produced or used.

Post-industrial stage

The final stage of the Clark-Fisher model, when the tertiary sector becomes the dominant sector as the economy becomes service-based, and the quaternary sector appears.

Pre-industrial stage

The first stage of the Clark-Fisher model, when the primary sector is the largest employer, as in agricultural economies.

Primary sector

Jobs which extract raw materials from the ground or sea, such as farming, mining and fishing.

Quaternary sector

The research sector: knowledge-based activities such as scientific research and IT.

Rural-urban migration

The movement of people from the countryside to towns and cities.

Secondary sector

Manufacturing: turning raw materials into something more useful or desirable, such as factory work, construction and car manufacturing.

Sector shift

When the main economic sector of a country changes, for example from primary to secondary.

Subsidy

Money given by a government to support a business or industry and encourage it.

Sustainability

Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, particularly regarding economic development and environmental protection.

Tax incentive

A tax reduction offered by a government to attract businesses or promote a particular industry.

Tertiary sector

The service sector, such as tourism, teaching, nursing and shops.

TNC

Transnational corporation: a large company that operates in many countries.

Underpopulation

When there are more resources than are needed for the population.

Weak governance

Poor enforcement of business regulations by the government, often with corruption, which encourages informal work.

Energy

Adaptation

Changing how people live to cope with the effects of a problem, such as building flood defences.

Balanced energy mix

Using several energy sources so a country does not depend on one fuel or one supplier, improving energy security.

Biodiversity

The variety of living things (plants, animals and other organisms) in an area.

Biomass

Energy from plant material and waste; it is renewable only if managed well, so that crops or trees are regrown.

Bus rapid transit (BRT)

A bus system with dedicated bus lanes, giving fast, cost-effective public transport as an alternative to an underground railway.

Carbon footprint

The total amount of greenhouse gases (especially carbon dioxide) produced by a person, product or activity.

Climate change

A long-term change in the Earth's climate, especially the warming since about 1900 caused mainly by extra greenhouse gases.

Decommissioning

Safely closing down a nuclear power plant at the end of its life.

Deforestation

The cutting down and removal of forest.

Desertification

The degradation of land in dry areas so that it becomes more desert-like, caused by climate and human activity.

Diversification

Spreading an economy or energy mix across more sources so that it depends less on one.

Double glazing

Windows with two layers of glass that reduce heat escaping through the windows.

Drought

A long period with much less rainfall than normal.

Ecological footprint

The area of land and water needed to supply all the resources a person or population uses and to absorb their waste.

Energy conservation

Saving energy by using less of it, for example by switching off lights and devices and avoiding standby.

Energy consumption

The amount of energy used by individuals, households, industry etc.

Energy deficit

When there is not enough energy and a country has to rely on imported energy.

Energy demand

The amount of energy being used or that is required.

Energy density

The amount of energy in a given amount of fuel, for example per litre.

Energy efficiency

Using less energy to do the same job, for example through insulation, LED bulbs or efficient machines.

Energy gap

The difference between energy produced and energy required, e.g. when fossil fuels are phased out but renewables do not produce enough to meet requirements.

Energy insecurity

An unreliable or irregular supply of energy. Demand exceeds supply.

Energy mix

The combination of energy sources a country uses.

Energy security

A secure supply of energy. The supply is greater than demand.

Energy supply

The amount of energy being made or produced.

Energy surplus

When there is more than enough energy and a country can sell some on.

Energy use per person

The average amount of energy used by each person in a country, often measured in kWh.

Finite

Limited in supply: once used up, it cannot be used again.

Fossil fuels

Energy sources like coal, oil and gas formed from ancient plants and animals. Burning them releases energy but also produces carbon dioxide, which causes climate change.

Fracking

Pumping water, sand and chemicals into shale rock at high pressure to release gas.

Fuelwood

Wood, twigs, branches or charcoal that people collect and burn for cooking, heating and sometimes lighting.

Geothermal energy

Energy from heat inside the Earth.

Greenhouse gases

Gases such as carbon dioxide and methane that trap heat in the atmosphere; extra amounts cause climate change.

Hydroelectric power (HEP)

Electricity generated by flowing water turning turbines, often using water stored in a reservoir behind a dam.

Insulation

Material in the walls and roof of a home that reduces heat loss in winter and keeps the home cooler in summer.

Intermittent

Not available all the time: the supply varies, as solar and wind power do with the weather.

kWh (kilowatt-hour)

A unit used to measure energy.

Kyoto Protocol

An international agreement, made because of climate change, to cut greenhouse gas emissions.

LNG (liquefied natural gas)

Natural gas cooled into a liquid so that it can be shipped.

Micro hydropower

Small-scale hydroelectric power that uses a small local river or stream to turn a turbine, giving electricity to remote places without a large dam.

National grid

The network of power lines that carries electricity across a country.

Non-renewable energy

Energy from fossil fuels and nuclear fuels. Finite in supply.

Nuclear fission

When the nucleus (centre) of an atom is split, releasing a large amount of heat energy, which is used to produce steam that turns turbines to generate electricity.

Primary energy

Fuel that provides energy without undergoing conversion, so it can be used as it is, for example coal.

Radioactive waste

Dangerous waste from nuclear power that stays harmful for thousands of years, so it must be stored safely.

Renewable energy

Energy from natural sources that are constantly replaced and will never run out, so it can be used over and over again, e.g. solar and wind.

Run-of-the-river scheme

A hydro scheme that diverts some of a river's water through a turbine, with no large dam or reservoir.

Secondary energy

Fuel that is made by processing primary energy, for example petrol, which comes from oil.

Shale gas

Natural gas trapped in shale rock and extracted by fracking. It is a fossil fuel, so it is non-renewable.

Solar power

Electricity generated from sunlight, for example by solar panels.

Sustainable

Meeting the needs of people today without harming the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

Sustainable energy

Energy that comes from sources that won't run out and do not damage the environment. It can be used again and again, and helps reduce pollution and climate change so that people in the future can still meet their energy needs.

Urbanisation

An increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas.

Wind power

Electricity generated by the wind turning turbines.

Coasts

Abrasion

Erosion where waves throw rocks and pebbles at the coastline, grinding down cliff surfaces like sandpaper.

Arch

A gap right through a headland, formed when a cave is eroded through to the other side.

Attrition

Erosion where rocks knock into each other and become smaller and rounder.

Backwash

The water that drains back down the beach after a wave.

Bay

A curved inlet of the sea, formed where soft rock erodes quickly; it is sheltered, so beaches often form there.

Biological weathering

The breakdown of rock in place by living things, such as plant roots and burrowing animals.

Cave

A hollow in a cliff or headland, formed when a crack is widened by erosion.

Chemical weathering

The breakdown of rock in place by chemical action, such as slightly acidic rainwater dissolving limestone and chalk.

Cliff

A steep rock face along the coast.

Coastline

The point at which the land meets the sea. It can range from dramatic cliffs to fine sandy beaches and is constantly changing due to physical processes and human activities.

Conflict

Disagreement between groups who want to use the coast differently.

Constructive wave

A low wave with a strong swash and weak backwash, with waves further apart; the strong swash brings sediment to build up the beach and the backwash is not strong enough to remove it.

Corrasion

Another name for abrasion: waves throwing rocks and pebbles at the cliff, grinding it down like sandpaper.

Corrosion

Another name for solution: weak acids in seawater dissolving rocks such as chalk and limestone.

Crack (joint)

A line of weakness in rock, such as a joint in a cliff or headland, which waves can exploit.

Deposition

When the wave loses energy and drops any material it has been carrying.

Destructive wave

A steep wave with a weak swash and strong backwash, with waves close together; the strong backwash removes sediment from the beach, and destructive waves cause coastal erosion.

Differential erosion

When different rocks erode at different speeds: soft rock erodes quickly and hard rock erodes slowly.

Discordant coast

A coast where bands of hard and soft rock meet the sea at right angles, forming headlands and bays.

Erosion

The action of waves wearing away the rocks along the coastline.

Fetch

The distance of open water that the wind blows over.

Freeze-thaw weathering

Mechanical weathering where water freezes in cracks, expands and splits the rock.

Hard engineering

Building structures, such as a sea wall, to protect the coast.

Headland

Land made of hard (resistant) rock that sticks out into the sea, because it erodes more slowly than the softer rock beside it.

Hydraulic action

Erosion where waves force water and air into cracks in a cliff; the trapped air is compressed, then expands quickly as the wave retreats, like a small explosion, weakening the cliff.

Longshore drift

The movement of material along a coast by waves that approach at an angle.

Mass movement

The downhill movement of rock or soil under gravity, such as sliding and slumping.

Mechanical weathering

The breakdown of rock in place by physical processes, such as freeze-thaw.

Nutrient cycle

The movement of nutrients between plants, soil and litter in an ecosystem.

Prevailing wind

The wind that blows most often in an area.

Saltation

Transport where pebbles and sand bounce along the sea bed.

Sediment

Material such as sand and pebbles that is carried and deposited by waves.

Sliding

Mass movement where material moves down a slope in one piece along a straight slip surface.

Slumping

Mass movement where saturated soft rock, such as clay, slips along a curved surface, rotating as it moves.

Soft engineering

Working with natural processes to manage a problem, such as beach nourishment or floodplain zoning.

Solution

Erosion where water dissolves rocks such as chalk and limestone; also transport of dissolved minerals.

Stack

A pillar of rock left in the sea when the roof of an arch collapses.

Storm surge

A rise in sea level caused by low pressure and strong winds.

Stump

A low rock left when a stack is eroded at its base and collapses; it is covered at high tide.

Suspension

Transport where fine material is carried along within the water.

Swash

The water that rushes up the beach after a wave breaks.

Traction

River transport where large boulders are rolled along the bed.

Transportation

The movement of material along a coastline.

Wave refraction

The bending of waves around headlands, which concentrates wave energy on the headlands and spreads it out in the bays.

Wave-cut notch

An undercut groove at the foot of a cliff, between high and low tide, cut by hydraulic action and abrasion.

Wave-cut platform

The gently sloping, flat rocky area left at the foot of a cliff as the cliff retreats, exposed at low tide.

Weathering

The breakdown of rocks at or near the surface of the ground.

Skills and exams

Anomaly

A value or place that does not fit the general pattern.

Assess / evaluate

A command word: weigh up both sides and reach a judgement.

Bias

When a source is one-sided, favouring a particular view, so it may not give a fair or balanced picture.

Choropleth map

A map that shades each area according to its value, using a key; darker shading usually means a higher value.

Define

A command word: give the exact meaning of a term.

Describe

A command word: say what something is like, using precise terms and data, without giving reasons.

Developed point

A point that explains the link to a result, using a chain such as because, therefore, leading to.

Explain

A command word: give reasons, saying why or how something happens.

HLGTA

A way to describe a graph or map: High, Low, General pattern, Trend over time and Anomalies, quoting data with units.

Identify / State

A command word: give a short fact, with no explanation needed.

Indicator

A measure used to profile a country, such as GDP per capita, employment structure, energy use per person or percentage urban.

Manipulating data

Working something out from the figures, such as a difference, ratio or percentage change, instead of just copying them.

Mean

Add all the values and divide by how many there are. Example: 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 18, 21 total 122; 122 / 11 = 11.1 (1 d.p.).

Percentage

Part divided by whole, times 100. Example: 18 out of 60 is 18 / 60 x 100 = 30%.

Percentage change

(New - old) / old x 100. A negative answer is a decrease. Example: from 240 to 300 is (300 - 240) / 240 x 100 = 25% increase.

Percentage point

The simple difference between two percentages.

Suggest

A command word: give a possible, reasoned geographical explanation linked to the resource, even though you are not expected to know the exact answer.

Trend

The overall direction of change over time: rising, falling or levelling off.

Full Geo 2026 test

Multiple-choice questions from every lesson, marked instantly. Choose a length or one section. At the end you see your score for each section and the lessons to revise.

Start the test

Exam-style questions

Write your answer first, then open the model answer and tick off the marking points. You can also get any answer marked with feedback.

Your International GCSE Geography exams

1. State the length of Paper 1 and the number of marks it is worth. (2 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Paper 1 lasts 1 hour 10 minutes and is worth 70 marks.

   Marking points:

   • 1 hour 10 minutes
   • 70 marks
   • Both facts clearly linked to Paper 1 (physical geography)

   Tip: State questions need short, exact facts, not explanation.

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2. Explain how a student could use the timing and marks of the two papers to manage their time in the exam. (4 marks)

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   Paper 1 is 70 marks in 1 hour 10 minutes and Paper 2 is 105 marks in 1 hour 45 minutes, so both papers give about one minute per mark. Therefore a student can plan roughly how long each question deserves, for example about 2 minutes for a 2-mark question and about 8 minutes for an 8-mark question. This stops them spending too long on short questions, leading to enough time to write developed answers to the high-mark questions at the end.

   Marking points:

   • Paper 1: 70 marks in 70 minutes
   • Paper 2: 105 marks in 105 minutes
   • About one minute per mark on both papers
   • Time per question matches its marks
   • Leaves time for long, high-mark answers

   Tip: Use the numbers from the papers, then explain why they matter.

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3. Assess how a student should divide their revision time between the two papers. (6 marks)

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   Paper 2 (human geography) is worth 60% of the qualification and 105 marks, while Paper 1 (physical geography) is worth 40% and 70 marks. Because Paper 2 carries more weight, a student should give it a larger share of revision, for example about 60% of their time, covering economic activity and energy, urban environments, urban fieldwork and fragile environments and climate change. However, Paper 1 is still 40%, so coasts, hazardous environments and coast fieldwork cannot be ignored, especially because fieldwork questions use different skills. The student should also spend more time on topics they find hardest, because a weak topic loses marks on either paper. Overall, splitting time roughly in line with the 60:40 weighting, then adjusting for weak topics, is the most sensible plan.

   Marking points:

   • Paper 2 is 60% (105 marks)
   • Paper 1 is 40% (70 marks)
   • Paper 2 topics: economic activity and energy, urban, fragile environments
   • Paper 1 topics: coasts, hazards
   • Both papers include fieldwork (coasts, urban)
   • Adjust for weaker topics
   • Clear final judgement

   Tip: Assess questions need both sides and a clear conclusion.

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Writing strong exam answers

1. Define the term 'informal employment'. (2 marks)

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   Informal employment is work that is not officially recorded or regulated by the government, so workers pay no tax and have no contracts or legal protection, for example street vending.

   Marking points:

   • Not officially recorded or regulated
   • No tax, contracts or legal protection
   • Example such as street vending

   Tip: A definition needs the exact meaning plus one detail or example.

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2. Explain two reasons why informal employment occurs in cities in developing countries. (4 marks)

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   Firstly, rural-urban migration brings many people to cities because they hope for better jobs, but many have no formal qualifications, therefore they cannot get formal jobs, leading them to work as street vendors or waste pickers. Secondly, there is high unemployment because there are not enough formal jobs for the growing population, so people create their own small, cash-based work to earn an income.

   Marking points:

   • Rural-urban migration
   • Migrants lack formal qualifications
   • High unemployment / not enough formal jobs
   • Low education levels
   • Each reason developed with a consequence

   Tip: Two reasons, each developed with because, therefore, leading to.

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3. Using a named example, explain the advantages and disadvantages of informal employment. (6 marks)

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   In Mumbai, India, there is a huge informal economy, especially in Dharavi; your notes say up to 68% of people work in the informal sector, as street vendors, domestic workers and waste pickers. One advantage is that it provides an income for the poor, therefore reducing extreme poverty for migrants who cannot get formal jobs. It also offers cheap goods and services to local people, and waste pickers recycle materials that would otherwise be thrown away. However, informal workers pay no tax, so the government has less money to invest in infrastructure and services. Workers also have poor working conditions and no rights such as sick leave or pensions, leading to insecure lives. Unregulated work can also cause pollution.

   Marking points:

   • Named example: Mumbai / Dharavi
   • Types of informal jobs
   • Provides income, reduces poverty
   • Cheap goods and services / recycling
   • No tax revenue for services
   • Poor conditions, no rights or job security
   • Points developed with consequences

   Tip: Cover both sides and use detail from your named example.

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Economic activity key words

1. Define the term 'informal economy'. (2 marks)

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   The informal economy is economic activity that is not officially recorded, regulated or taxed by the government, for example unregistered street vending.

   Marking points:

   • Not officially recorded or registered
   • Not regulated or taxed by the government
   • Valid example, e.g. street vendor or waste picker

   Tip: For a 2-mark definition, give the precise meaning and add a short example.

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2. Explain how the multiplier effect can benefit a local area. (4 marks)

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   When a large firm such as Nissan opens a factory, it creates jobs, so local people earn wages. They spend these wages in local shops and services, therefore those businesses grow and employ more people. Suppliers also locate nearby to sell parts to the factory, leading to even more jobs. More workers pay more tax, so the government can invest in roads and services, which attracts further businesses.

   Marking points:

   • Initial investment creates jobs
   • Wages are spent locally
   • Local shops and services grow and hire more staff
   • Suppliers locate nearby
   • More tax for services and infrastructure
   • Named example such as Nissan, Sunderland

   Tip: Show the chain of events using 'so', 'therefore' and 'leading to'.

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3. Explain how globalisation and outsourcing can lead to deindustrialisation in a developed country such as the UK. (6 marks)

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   Globalisation means economies are increasingly connected through trade and investment. Because transport and communications have improved, TNCs can make goods anywhere in the world. Labour is cheaper in many developing and emerging countries such as China, so companies outsource manufacturing there to cut costs. Therefore factories in the UK close, leading to deindustrialisation, the decline of manufacturing. This causes unemployment in former industrial areas and a negative multiplier as local shops lose trade. However, the UK economy has shifted towards services and research, so tertiary and quaternary jobs have grown.

   Marking points:

   • Definition or idea of globalisation
   • TNCs can locate production anywhere
   • Cheaper labour abroad leads to outsourcing
   • UK factories close: deindustrialisation
   • Unemployment and negative multiplier in former industrial areas
   • Shift to tertiary and quaternary jobs
   • Named example: UK and China

   Tip: Link each step clearly so the examiner can follow cause to effect.

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4. Define the term 'transnational corporation (TNC)' and give an example. (2 marks)

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   A transnational corporation is a large company that operates in more than one country (1), for example Apple, McDonald's or Nike (1).

   Marking points:

   • Large company operating in several countries
   • Named example such as Apple, McDonald's or Nike

   Tip: A definition plus a named example is the safest way to get both marks.

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Job sectors and the Clark-Fisher model

1. State the economic sector for each of these jobs: a fisherman, a car factory worker, a teacher. (3 marks)

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   A fisherman works in the primary sector. A car factory worker works in the secondary sector. A teacher works in the tertiary sector.

   Marking points:

   • Fisherman: primary
   • Car factory worker: secondary
   • Teacher: tertiary

   Tip: One mark per job, so write each answer clearly.

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2. Explain why the tertiary sector becomes the largest employer as a country develops. (4 marks)

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   As a country develops, people earn higher incomes, so they spend more on services such as shopping, tourism and leisure. The government also collects more tax, therefore it can provide more schools and hospitals, creating jobs for teachers and nurses. At the same time, manufacturing jobs fall because of automation and outsourcing abroad, leading to services making up a larger share of employment.

   Marking points:

   • Higher incomes increase demand for services
   • Examples of services: retail, tourism, leisure
   • More tax spent on health and education
   • Secondary jobs fall because of automation or outsourcing
   • So tertiary share rises

   Tip: Give two developed reasons rather than four short ones.

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3. Using the Clark-Fisher model, explain how employment structure changes as a country moves from pre-industrial to post-industrial. (6 marks)

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   In the pre-industrial stage the primary sector is the largest employer, because most people farm, fish or mine and this needs little money or technology. In the industrial stage, money from raw materials and foreign investment is used to build factories, so secondary jobs grow. Mechanisation means fewer farm workers are needed, therefore primary employment falls. In the post-industrial stage, higher incomes increase demand for services, so the tertiary sector becomes dominant. Secondary jobs decline because of automation and outsourcing, and the quaternary sector appears, with research and IT jobs in HICs such as the UK.

   Marking points:

   • Pre-industrial: primary largest
   • Reason: little technology or money needed
   • Industrial: secondary grows, primary falls
   • Reason: factories built, mechanisation
   • Post-industrial: tertiary dominant
   • Secondary declines due to automation or outsourcing
   • Quaternary appears
   • Example of a country, e.g. UK

   Tip: Describe each stage and explain why it happens; description alone limits your marks.

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4. Define the quaternary sector, give an example, and explain why it is mostly found in high-income countries. (4 marks)

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   The quaternary sector is research and knowledge-based work (1), such as scientists developing new medicines or IT specialists (1). It is mostly found in HICs because it needs a highly educated workforce (1) and advanced technology and investment, which HICs can afford (1).

   Marking points:

   • Research or knowledge-based activity
   • Example: scientist, IT, research and development
   • Needs a highly educated workforce
   • Needs advanced technology and money, found in HICs

   Tip: Split your answer into definition, example, then the reason.

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5. Country A: 70% primary, 10% secondary, 20% tertiary. Country B: 1% primary, 19% secondary, 80% tertiary. Compare the employment structures of the two countries. (4 marks)

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   Country A has 70% of its jobs in the primary sector, whereas Country B has only 1%, so A has seventy times as many primary jobs in percentage terms. Country B has 80% in the tertiary sector, four times Country A's 20%. Secondary employment is similar, at 10% and 19%. This suggests Country A is a low-income country at the pre-industrial stage, while Country B is a high-income, post-industrial country.

   Marking points:

   • Primary: 70% versus 1% with comparison word
   • Tertiary: 80% versus 20%
   • Data manipulated (for example four times)
   • Secondary compared
   • Linked to level of development or Clark-Fisher stage

   Tip: Use 'whereas' and quote figures from both countries in every sentence.

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Why employment structures change

1. Identify two reasons why employment in the primary sector falls as a country develops. (2 marks)

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   Mechanisation means fewer workers are needed. Better education means people choose safer, better-paid jobs in other sectors.

   Marking points:

   • Mechanisation or new technology
   • Better education
   • Low wages
   • Raw materials run out
   • Imports through globalisation

   Tip: For 'identify', short clear points are enough; one mark each.

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2. Explain how demographic change can affect a country's employment structure. (4 marks)

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   A young population increases demand for schools and training, so more teachers are needed and young people provide workers for industry, leading to growth in secondary and tertiary jobs. An ageing population needs more healthcare and care services, therefore jobs for nurses, doctors and care workers increase. This means the tertiary sector grows as a share of employment.

   Marking points:

   • Young population: demand for education
   • Young workers for industry: secondary jobs
   • Ageing population: more healthcare and care
   • Tertiary sector grows
   • Developed explanation using 'so' or 'therefore'

   Tip: Cover both a young and an ageing population for a full answer.

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3. Assess the positive and negative impacts of economic sector shifts in a named developed country and a named emerging country. (8 marks)

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   In the UK, a developed country, manufacturing and mining declined from the 1960s. Negatively, this caused unemployment in former coalfields, because the main employer closed, leading to a negative multiplier and derelict land. Positively, services, finance and research grew, and the environment became cleaner as heavy industry closed. In China, an emerging country, manufacturing grew rapidly from the 1980s. Positively, this created hundreds of millions of jobs and raised incomes. Negatively, rapid factory growth caused serious air and water pollution, long working hours and inequality between coastal cities and rural areas. Overall, both countries gained economically, but the costs fell on particular places: old industrial areas in the UK and polluted cities and left-behind rural areas in China.

   Marking points:

   • Named developed country: UK
   • UK negative: unemployment, negative multiplier, derelict land
   • UK positive: growth of services and cleaner environment
   • Named emerging country: China
   • China positive: jobs and rising incomes
   • China negative: pollution, long hours, inequality
   • Balanced judgement or conclusion

   Tip: An 'assess' question needs a conclusion that weighs up the impacts.

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4. Explain how mechanisation, globalisation and government policy can change a country's employment structure. (6 marks)

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   Mechanisation means machines such as tractors and robots do work that many people once did, therefore fewer workers are needed in farming and factories, leading to people moving into tertiary jobs. Globalisation means companies can outsource manufacturing to countries with cheaper labour, so factories close in HICs such as the UK, leading to deindustrialisation, while countries such as China gain secondary jobs. Goods may also be imported instead of produced locally, as in Dubai. Government policy can attract particular industries using subsidies and tax incentives, or invest in education and infrastructure, which encourages tertiary and quaternary jobs. For example, UK government support helped attract Nissan to Sunderland, creating secondary jobs.

   Marking points:

   • Mechanisation reduces workers needed
   • Workers move to other sectors
   • Globalisation: outsourcing to cheaper countries
   • Deindustrialisation in HICs / industrialisation in China
   • Government: subsidies and tax incentives
   • Government: education investment grows tertiary and quaternary
   • Named example such as Nissan or Dubai

   Tip: Give each factor its own developed paragraph.

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5. Explain how the availability of raw materials can affect employment in the primary sector. (4 marks)

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   Where resources such as oil, minerals or fertile land are abundant, there are many primary jobs in mining and farming. When a resource runs out, for example fossil fuels, mines and wells close, therefore primary jobs are lost and the economy must shift towards secondary or tertiary activities. Climate change can also cause desertification, reducing fertile land and leading to fewer jobs for farmers.

   Marking points:

   • Abundant resources support primary jobs
   • Resource depletion closes mines or wells
   • Primary jobs lost, shift to other sectors
   • Desertification reduces farming jobs

   Tip: Show both sides: plenty of resources, then running out.

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Location of economic activity and Nissan, Sunderland

1. State three factors that influence the location of a large factory. (3 marks)

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   Large areas of cheap, flat land. A supply of skilled or unskilled labour. Good transport links such as roads and ports.

   Marking points:

   • Cheap, flat land
   • Labour supply
   • Transport links or infrastructure
   • Access to markets
   • Government incentives
   • Political stability

   Tip: Give three different factors, not three versions of the same one.

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2. Explain how the location of tertiary and quaternary activities is different. (4 marks)

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   Tertiary activities such as shops need to be close to customers, so they locate in city centres or out-of-town retail parks with good road access. Quaternary activities such as IT and research need skilled graduates and fast internet, therefore they cluster near universities and science parks. Technology also allows some quaternary workers to work from home, so location matters less for them.

   Marking points:

   • Tertiary near customers or markets
   • City centres or retail parks
   • Quaternary needs skilled graduates
   • Near universities and science parks
   • Fast internet or digital connectivity
   • Home working reduces need for one location

   Tip: Compare the two sectors directly using words like 'whereas'.

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3. Using a named example, explain the factors that influenced the location of a car manufacturing plant. (6 marks)

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   Nissan, a Japanese car company, opened a factory in Sunderland, north-east England, in 1986. A large, flat former airfield was offered cheaply, which suited a huge car plant with long production lines. Shipyards and coal mines in the area had closed, so there was a large skilled workforce looking for jobs. Ports and main roads such as the A1 and A19 meant parts could be brought in and cars exported easily. The UK government supported the investment, which reduced Nissan's costs. As a result, Nissan created thousands of jobs, and parts suppliers located nearby, leading to a multiplier effect.

   Marking points:

   • Named example: Nissan, Sunderland
   • Large flat site (former airfield), offered cheaply
   • Skilled workforce after shipyard and mine closures
   • Ports and roads (A1, A19) for exports
   • Government support or incentives
   • Each factor linked to the needs of a car factory
   • Impact: jobs and multiplier effect

   Tip: Explain why each factor mattered to a car maker, not just what it was.

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4. Explain how and why the location of economic activity can change over time. Refer to at least two sectors. (6 marks)

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   Primary activity must be located at the resource, so when a mine or oil field is exhausted, extraction moves to new deposits. Secondary industry was once located on coalfields because coal provided power and was costly to transport. Today electricity and good transport links mean factories choose large, cheap, flat sites near roads and ports, and globalisation means many have moved to countries with cheaper labour, leading to factory closures in HICs. Tertiary activity follows customers, from city centres to out-of-town retail parks, and online shopping has moved some activity to warehouses. Quaternary activity needs skilled graduates and fast internet, so it clusters near universities, while digital connectivity lets some people work from home. Government policies such as tax incentives can also attract firms to new areas.

   Marking points:

   • Primary follows the resource
   • Secondary: coalfields in the past
   • Secondary: transport links and cheap land now
   • Globalisation moves factories abroad
   • Tertiary: city centre to retail parks or online
   • Quaternary: universities and internet
   • Government incentives

   Tip: Use 'in the past' and 'today' to show the change over time.

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The informal economy and Mumbai

1. Give two characteristics of informal employment. (2 marks)

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   It is unregistered and not taxed. Workers have low pay and no job security, sick pay or pension.

   Marking points:

   • Unregistered or unregulated
   • Not taxed
   • Low pay
   • No job security, sick pay or pension
   • Cash-based and small-scale
   • Labour-intensive

   Tip: Two different characteristics are needed; one mark each.

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2. Explain why informal employment is common in rapidly growing cities in developing countries. (4 marks)

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   Many people move from rural areas to cities looking for work, but the city grows faster than the number of formal jobs, so there are not enough contracted jobs. Many migrants have low education and no qualifications, therefore they cannot get the formal jobs available. They create their own work, such as street vending or waste picking. Weak governance means this work is rarely registered or taxed, leading to a large informal economy.

   Marking points:

   • Rural-urban migration
   • Not enough formal jobs
   • Low education or no qualifications
   • People create their own work
   • Weak governance or corruption
   • Example such as Mumbai

   Tip: Use the checklist links: economic development and rural-urban migration.

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3. Using a named megacity, assess the advantages and disadvantages of informal employment. (8 marks)

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   In Mumbai, India's largest city, your notes estimate up to 68% of people work in the informal sector, especially in Dharavi, one of the world's largest slums. Advantages: it gives poor migrants an income they would not otherwise have, reducing extreme poverty. It encourages entrepreneurship, as seen in Dharavi's leather, pottery and textile workshops, and street vendors offer cheap goods and services to local people. Recyclers also reduce waste. Disadvantages: workers have no contracts, sick pay or pensions, so if they are ill or injured they lose their income. Conditions can be dangerous, for example for waste pickers. Because the work is untaxed, the government has less money for roads, schools and sanitation, and unregulated workshops can cause pollution. Overall, informal work is vital for survival in Mumbai, but it keeps workers vulnerable and limits the city's ability to improve services.

   Marking points:

   • Named megacity: Mumbai / Dharavi
   • Characteristic jobs: vendors, domestic workers, waste pickers
   • Advantage: income and reduces extreme poverty
   • Advantage: entrepreneurship, cheap goods
   • Disadvantage: no security or workers' rights
   • Disadvantage: no tax revenue for services
   • Disadvantage: pollution or dangerous conditions
   • Balanced conclusion

   Tip: Use Mumbai detail throughout and finish with a judgement.

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4. Describe the characteristics of informal employment in a named megacity. (4 marks)

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   In Mumbai, India, informal employment is huge, especially in Dharavi; your notes estimate up to 68% of people work in the informal sector. Jobs include street vendors, domestic workers and waste pickers and recyclers, as well as small workshops making leather goods and pottery. The work is unregistered and untaxed, small-scale and cash-based, and it is labour-intensive. Workers have low pay and no job security, contracts, sick pay or pensions.

   Marking points:

   • Named megacity: Mumbai / Dharavi
   • Scale: up to 68% (your notes)
   • Typical jobs: vendors, domestic workers, waste pickers
   • Unregistered, untaxed, cash-based, small-scale
   • Low pay, no security or benefits

   Tip: Describe means what it is like: give detail and named jobs, not reasons.

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Population and resources

1. Define the term 'optimum population'. (2 marks)

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   Optimum population is when the population and resources are in balance, so the population can be supported sustainably.

   Marking points:

   • Population and resources in balance
   • Population can be supported sustainably
   • Neither over- nor underpopulated

   Tip: Contrast with over- and underpopulation if you have time, but the balance is the key idea.

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2. Explain Boserup's theory of the relationship between population and resources. (4 marks)

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   Boserup (1965) was an optimist. She argued that as population grows, pressure on food supply increases. Because people need more food, they are forced to invent new methods, such as irrigation, fertilisers and new crop varieties. Therefore food production rises to keep up with population, so resources do not run out. Her idea is summed up as 'necessity is the mother of invention'.

   Marking points:

   • Optimist
   • Population growth puts pressure on resources
   • People invent new technology
   • Examples: irrigation, fertilisers, new crops
   • Food supply increases to match population
   • Necessity is the mother of invention

   Tip: Use an example of a new technology to develop your point.

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3. Compare the views of Malthus and Boserup on population and resources. (6 marks)

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   Both Malthus and Boserup looked at how population growth affects food supply, but they reached opposite conclusions. Malthus (1798) was a pessimist: he believed population grows faster than food supply, so eventually population would exceed food, leading to famine, disease and war that reduce the population. Boserup (1965) was an optimist: she believed population pressure would force people to invent new farming methods such as irrigation and fertilisers, therefore food supply would rise to meet demand. So Malthus saw resources as a fixed limit, whereas Boserup saw human invention as able to increase resources. The Club of Rome (1972) took a middle view, arguing a sustainable balance was possible if growth was managed.

   Marking points:

   • Both focus on population and food
   • Malthus: population grows faster than food
   • Malthus: famine, disease and war as checks
   • Boserup: population pressure drives invention
   • Boserup: technology increases food supply
   • Direct comparison: pessimist versus optimist
   • Dates or Club of Rome as extra detail

   Tip: Use comparison words such as 'whereas' and 'however' throughout, not two separate descriptions.

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4. Explain Malthus' theory of the relationship between population and resources. (4 marks)

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   Malthus (1798) was a pessimist. He believed population grows faster than the availability of resources such as food and energy. Therefore population would eventually become larger than the food supply could support. This would lead to checks such as famine, disease and war, which would reduce the population until it was small enough to be supported by the resources available again.

   Marking points:

   • Pessimist
   • Population grows faster than resources such as food
   • Population exceeds food supply (crisis point)
   • Famine, disease and war reduce population
   • Population falls back to what resources can support

   Tip: Explain the sequence: faster growth, crisis, checks, fall.

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5. Suggest three ways a country could achieve a better balance between population and resources. (3 marks)

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   Control population growth through contraception and family-planning education (1). Reduce resource consumption, for example by limiting energy use and cutting food waste (1). Use technology to find new resources, such as renewable wind and solar energy (1).

   Marking points:

   • Control population growth (contraception, family planning, incentives)
   • Reduce consumption (energy, food waste)
   • Use technology for new resources (renewables)
   • Development not based only on natural resources

   Tip: These four ideas come straight from your notes: learn them.

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Energy demand, supply and security

1. Define the term energy security. (2 marks)

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   Energy security is when a country has a reliable, secure supply of energy (1) where the supply of energy is greater than the demand for it (1).

   Marking points:

   • Reliable or secure supply of energy
   • Supply is greater than demand

   Tip: Give both parts: reliable supply and supply greater than demand.

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2. Explain two reasons why a country's demand for energy may increase. (4 marks)

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   One reason is increasing wealth. As people become richer they buy bigger houses, more cars and more technology such as computers and air conditioning, therefore each person uses more energy. A second reason is population growth. More people need more energy for food production, transport and electricity, leading to a rise in total demand. For example, China's large population of about 1.4 billion increases demand for electricity in households.

   Marking points:

   • Increasing wealth
   • Developed: bigger homes, more cars and technology use more energy
   • Population growth
   • Developed: more energy for food, transport and electricity
   • Example such as China

   Tip: For each reason, state it and then develop it with 'therefore' or 'leading to'.

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3. Explain how political, economic and environmental factors can affect a country's energy supply. (6 marks)

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   Political factors can reduce supply. Wars and political instability can stop a country exporting energy, for example oil exports fell sharply during the Gulf War, so importing countries face energy insecurity. International agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol mean countries cut greenhouse gas emissions, therefore they reduce fossil fuel use. Safety concerns about nuclear waste make new nuclear stations harder to build. Economic factors also matter. Fossil fuel prices go up and down, and new power stations and wind farms are very expensive, so LICs may not afford them. Niger has large uranium reserves but lacks the money and technology to exploit them. Environmental factors decide what is possible. Fossil fuels are unevenly distributed, and climate and geography control the potential for solar, wind, tidal and HEP. Natural hazards such as earthquakes can damage infrastructure, leading to supply being cut.

   Marking points:

   • Political: war cuts exports, e.g. Gulf War
   • Political: Kyoto Protocol reduces fossil fuel use
   • Political: nuclear safety concerns
   • Economic: volatile fuel prices
   • Economic: high cost of new infrastructure for LICs
   • Economic: Niger uranium, lack of money/technology
   • Environmental: uneven distribution of fossil fuels
   • Environmental: climate/geography and hazards

   Tip: Cover all three factor types named in the question, with an example for each, to reach the top level.

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4. Explain what is meant by an energy gap. Use an example in your answer. (3 marks)

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   An energy gap is the difference between the energy a country needs (demand) and the energy it produces (supply) (1). When demand is greater than supply, the country must import energy or face shortages (1). For example, India faces rising demand for energy but struggles to keep up, or a country phases out fossil fuels before renewables can meet requirements (1).

   Marking points:

   • Difference between energy needed and produced
   • Demand greater than supply leads to imports or shortages
   • Example: India or fossil fuels phased out before renewables are ready

   Tip: Give the definition, the consequence and an example.

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5. Explain why energy demand and production vary around the world. Refer to population growth, wealth and technology. (6 marks)

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   Population growth increases demand, because more people need energy for food production, transport and electricity; countries with large populations such as China and India use the most energy in total. Wealth also matters: as countries become richer, people have bigger houses, more cars and more technology, so energy use per person is highest in rich, industrialised countries such as the USA, Canada and Qatar and lowest in countries such as Chad, Niger and Nepal, where many people lack electricity. Technology affects production: some countries have resources but not the technology to exploit them, such as Niger's uranium, while specialist equipment can reach oil trapped in rock. Technology can also reduce demand through efficiency. Production also depends on physical factors such as the uneven distribution of fossil fuels and climates suited to solar, wind or HEP.

   Marking points:

   • Population growth raises demand
   • Example: China or India total use
   • Wealth raises use per person
   • High versus low examples (USA, Qatar versus Chad, Nepal)
   • Technology needed to exploit resources (Niger)
   • Technology can reach trapped oil or improve efficiency
   • Physical factors affect production

   Tip: Cover all three named factors, each with an example.

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Global energy use and fuelwood

1. Identify two physical factors that affect energy demand or supply. (2 marks)

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   Climate, for example hot countries such as the UAE need energy for air conditioning (1). Resource availability, for example solar power needs a sunny climate and oil-rich countries often use a lot of energy (1).

   Marking points:

   • Climate (e.g. UAE air conditioning)
   • Availability of natural resources (e.g. sunshine, oil)

   Tip: Physical means natural: do not give population or cost.

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2. Explain why China's demand for energy has increased. (4 marks)

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   China has a very large population of about 1.4 billion, which leads to increased demand for electricity in households. It has also experienced rapid urbanisation and is the world's largest manufacturing nation, leading to growth in electricity demand to support its cities and factories.

   Marking points:

   • Large population (about 1.4 billion)
   • Leads to more household electricity demand
   • Rapid urbanisation / largest manufacturing nation
   • Leads to more electricity demand in cities and industry

   Tip: This matches the model answer in your class notes: two reasons, each with a 'leading to' development.

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3. Explain the social, economic and environmental impacts of relying on fuelwood. (6 marks)

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   Fuelwood is wood, twigs, branches or charcoal burned for cooking and heating, and it is most used in developing countries such as Ethiopia and rural Nepal. Environmentally, more wood is cut each year than regrows, causing deforestation. This exposes soil, leading to soil erosion and in some areas desertification, and destroys habitats so biodiversity is lost. Socially, burning wood indoors produces smoke, which causes breathing and eye illnesses, especially for women and children who cook. As wood runs out, people have to walk further and further to collect it, which takes time away from school or work. Economically, where wood must be bought, families spend a large share of their income on fuel, known as fuel wood poverty, therefore they have less money for food and other needs.

   Marking points:

   • Environmental: deforestation as cutting exceeds regrowth
   • Environmental: soil erosion / desertification / biodiversity loss
   • Social: indoor smoke causes breathing and eye illness
   • Social: walking further to collect wood
   • Economic: cost of buying fuel (fuel wood poverty)
   • Named place, e.g. Ethiopia or Nepal

   Tip: Organise your answer under the three headings in the question so the examiner can see each impact.

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4. A map of the European Union in 2022 shows higher energy consumption per person in many northern countries and some eastern countries. Suggest one possible reason for the differences in energy consumption. (3 marks)

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   Energy consumption per person is higher in northern Europe (1). This may be because temperatures are colder there (1), so more energy is needed to heat homes and businesses (1). Alternatively: demand may be higher in some eastern European countries (1) because more industrial processes take place there (1), and these are energy intensive (1).

   Marking points:

   • Basic point about where consumption is higher (AO1)
   • Reason: colder temperatures or more industry (AO3)
   • Extension: heating homes and businesses, or energy-intensive industry (AO3)

   Tip: This is your class mark scheme: one point, then extend it twice using the map.

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5. Describe the trend in global energy use since 1800 and suggest why it has changed. (4 marks)

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   In the 1800s, energy use was low and almost all came from traditional biomass such as wood. During the 1900s it rose, and after 1950 it increased massively, as coal, oil and gas grew rapidly. Since about 2000 renewables such as solar and wind have grown, but fossil fuels still dominate. This is because world population has grown rapidly and industrialisation and rising wealth mean each person uses more energy for transport, electricity and industry.

   Marking points:

   • Low use in the 1800s from traditional biomass
   • Rapid rise after 1950
   • Coal, oil and gas dominate; renewables growing since about 2000
   • Reason: population growth
   • Reason: industrialisation and wealth raise use per person

   Tip: Describe first with dates, then give the reasons.

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6. Assess which factor has the biggest influence on global energy supply today. (6 marks)

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   Several factors affect energy supply. Resource availability is a physical factor: countries with oil, gas or sunshine can produce energy, and oil-rich places often consume a lot. The cost of exploiting energy is a human factor: oil needs huge investment in pipelines and rigs, which poorer countries may not afford. Political factors, such as instability or conflict in energy-rich regions like the Middle East, can disrupt oil and gas exports for many countries at once. Technology, such as breakthroughs in green hydrogen, could change supply in the future. Overall, political factors may have the biggest influence today, because one conflict can cut supplies to many importing countries and push prices up worldwide, although resources and cost decide what each country can produce in the first place.

   Marking points:

   • Resource availability (physical)
   • Cost of exploiting energy
   • Political instability or conflict, e.g. Middle East
   • Technology, e.g. green hydrogen
   • Factors weighed against each other
   • Clear, supported judgement

   Tip: There is no single right answer: choose one, compare it with others and justify your judgement.

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Energy sources and a balanced energy mix

1. State two disadvantages of nuclear power. (2 marks)

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   It produces radioactive waste that is dangerous and hard to store (1). There is a risk of accidents, and nuclear power stations are expensive to build (1).

   Marking points:

   • Radioactive waste
   • Risk of accidents
   • Expensive to build
   • Uranium is finite

   Tip: One clear disadvantage per mark: do not write about CO2, as nuclear has very low emissions.

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2. Explain one advantage and one disadvantage of solar power. (4 marks)

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   One advantage is that solar power is renewable and clean, because it produces no carbon dioxide when generating electricity, therefore it helps reduce climate change. Panels can also be fitted easily on buildings. One disadvantage is that it does not work at night and depends on sunlight hours, so supply is unreliable, leading to a need for backup sources such as gas or storage.

   Marking points:

   • Advantage: renewable / no CO2 when generating
   • Developed: reduces climate change or easy to fit on buildings
   • Disadvantage: no power at night / depends on sunshine
   • Developed: unreliable, needs backup or storage

   Tip: State the advantage and disadvantage, then explain the effect of each on people or the environment.

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3. Explain how a country can develop a balanced energy mix. Use an example you have studied. (6 marks)

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   A balanced energy mix uses several different sources so a country does not depend on one fuel or one supplier, which improves energy security. First, a country can grow renewables such as wind and solar to cut carbon dioxide emissions. For example, the UK has expanded offshore wind and phased out coal power, supported by the Climate Change Act 2008 and a target of net zero by 2050. However, wind and solar are intermittent, so the country keeps reliable sources such as natural gas, which can start up quickly, and nuclear, which runs in any weather. Adding storage also helps cover calm or dark periods. It can import energy from several partners rather than one, so if one supplier stops exporting, for example because of war, others fill the gap. Finally, reducing demand through efficiency means less energy is needed overall.

   Marking points:

   • Definition: several sources, not dependent on one
   • Grow renewables to cut emissions
   • Keep reliable backup (gas, nuclear) because renewables are intermittent
   • Storage
   • Import from several partners
   • Reduce demand
   • Named example, e.g. UK offshore wind, coal phased out

   Tip: Link every method back to energy security, and include a named country for top marks.

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4. State one example of a non-renewable energy source. (1 mark)

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   Coal (also accept oil, natural gas or LNG, or nuclear).

   Marking points:

   • Coal
   • Oil
   • Natural gas or LNG
   • Nuclear (uranium)

   Tip: One correct example is enough: this is your class Do Now mark scheme.

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5. State one example of a renewable energy resource. (1 mark)

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   Solar (also accept hydroelectric, wind, wave or biomass).

   Marking points:

   • Solar
   • Hydroelectric (HEP)
   • Wind
   • Wave
   • Biomass

   Tip: Just name it: no explanation needed for 1 mark.

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6. Explain why some countries might prefer to invest in nuclear power rather than solar or wind power. (4 marks)

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   Nuclear power plants run almost continuously, so they give a steady, reliable base supply, whereas solar does not work at night and wind depends on windy weather. Nuclear produces a very large amount of energy from a small amount of uranium and takes up less land than solar or wind farms, which suits crowded countries. It also releases no carbon dioxide while operating, so it helps countries meet climate targets while keeping supply secure.

   Marking points:

   • Reliable, continuous base supply
   • Solar and wind are intermittent
   • High energy from little fuel
   • Less land needed
   • No CO2 while operating, helps climate targets

   Tip: Compare directly with solar and wind in each point.

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7. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of renewable and non-renewable energy sources for people and the environment. (8 marks)

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   Non-renewable sources such as coal, oil and gas are reliable and easy to store, and coal mining creates many jobs, which benefits people. Oil has high energy density, so it is ideal for vehicles. However, burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, causing climate change, and coal contributes to acid rain; oil spills damage marine ecosystems and coal mines can be dangerous for workers. Nuclear power gives a steady supply with no CO2 while operating, but produces radioactive waste and carries a small risk of accidents such as Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011). Renewable sources such as solar, wind and HEP will not run out and produce little or no CO2, which protects the environment and future generations, and wind is cheap to run once built. However, solar does not work at night and wind needs windy locations, so supply is less reliable for people. HEP dams can flood habitats and force people to move, and biomass releases CO2 and needs large amounts of land. Overall, renewables are better for the environment in the long term, but non-renewables currently give more reliable supply, which is why a balanced energy mix is sensible.

   Marking points:

   • Non-renewable advantage for people: reliable, jobs, energy density
   • Non-renewable environmental cost: CO2, acid rain, oil spills
   • Nuclear: no CO2 but waste and accident risk
   • Renewable environmental benefit: no running out, little CO2
   • Renewable disadvantage for people: intermittent supply
   • Renewable environmental cost: HEP flooding, biomass land and CO2
   • Named sources used throughout
   • Supported overall judgement

   Tip: Organise by people and environment, and finish with a judgement.

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Sustainable energy and Curitiba

1. State three ways energy can be conserved in the home. (3 marks)

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   Fitting insulation in walls and the roof (1). Installing double glazing (1). Using LED light bulbs and switching devices off instead of leaving them on standby (1).

   Marking points:

   • Insulation
   • Double glazing
   • LED bulbs
   • Switching off / avoiding standby
   • Solar panels

   Tip: One clear way per mark; avoid repeating the same idea in different words.

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2. Explain how education can help manage energy use sustainably. (4 marks)

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   Education campaigns teach people why saving energy matters, therefore they are more likely to switch off lights and devices and choose efficient appliances, leading to lower demand. Teaching sustainability from a young age, as in Curitiba, Brazil, creates habits such as recycling and using public transport, so fewer fossil fuels are burned and the city's energy use falls.

   Marking points:

   • Raises awareness of why saving energy matters
   • Developed: people switch off / buy efficient appliances
   • Example: Curitiba environmental education from a young age
   • Developed: recycling / public transport, less fossil fuel

   Tip: Explain the chain: education leads to behaviour change, which leads to lower energy use.

   Write your answer and get it marked

3. Using a named example, assess how successfully a city has managed energy and resources sustainably. (8 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Curitiba in Brazil is often called one of the world's most sustainable cities. Its biggest success is transport. It pioneered bus rapid transit in 1974, a much cheaper alternative to an underground railway. Dedicated bus lanes make journeys fast, so many people use buses instead of cars, which reduces fuel use, traffic and air pollution. Cycle lanes and pedestrian streets reduce petrol demand further. Green space is also managed sustainably. Flood-prone land was turned into parks rather than expensive concrete defences, which saved energy and lets green areas act as natural flood control, and sheep trim the grass in some parks, saving fuel. Waste is tackled through 'Garbage that is not garbage' and the Green Exchange, where low-income families trade recyclable waste for fresh food, so waste and hunger are reduced together. Your notes say around 70% of waste is recycled. However, success depended on long-term planning and strong environmental education over many years, and schemes such as BRT need dedicated road space that older, crowded cities may not have, so the model is not easy to copy everywhere. Overall, Curitiba has been very successful because its schemes save energy and improve people's lives at the same time.

   Marking points:

   • Named city: Curitiba, Brazil
   • BRT (1974) cheaper than subway, cuts car use and fuel
   • Cycle lanes and pedestrian streets
   • Parks on flood-prone land instead of concrete
   • Recycling: Garbage that is not garbage / Green Exchange
   • Environmental education
   • Evaluation: limits or difficulty copying elsewhere
   • Supported overall judgement

   Tip: 'Assess' needs a judgement: weigh successes against limits and finish with a clear conclusion.

   Write your answer and get it marked

4. Explain two ways transport can be made more sustainable. (4 marks)

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   Develop more mass rapid transit or public transport, such as Curitiba's bus rapid transit (1), so that fewer vehicles are on the road emitting greenhouse gases (1). Build more electric vehicle charging points (1) to encourage people to switch to electric vehicles, reducing carbon emissions (1).

   Marking points:

   • Way 1 identified (public transport, EVs, cycle lanes, charging points, car sharing)
   • Way 1 expanded
   • Way 2 identified
   • Way 2 expanded

   Tip: Your class mark scheme: 1 mark for the way, 1 for the expansion, twice.

   Write your answer and get it marked

5. Explain two ways people can use energy more sustainably in their homes. (4 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Improve the insulation of roofs and walls (1) to reduce heat loss, so less energy is needed for heating (1). Change from a gas boiler to a heat pump (1) to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels (1).

   Marking points:

   • Way 1 identified (insulation, double glazing, heat pump, lower thermostat, solar panels)
   • Way 1 expanded
   • Way 2 identified
   • Way 2 expanded

   Tip: Say what each action reduces: heat loss, fuel use or emissions.

   Write your answer and get it marked

6. Define the term 'ecological footprint'. (2 marks)

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   An ecological footprint is the area of land and water (1) needed to supply the resources a person or population uses and to absorb their waste (1).

   Marking points:

   • Area of land and water
   • Needed for resources used and to absorb waste

   Tip: Do not confuse it with a carbon footprint, which only counts greenhouse gases.

   Write your answer and get it marked

Saving energy: people, governments, the UAE, Qatar and Nepal

1. Define the term carbon footprint. (2 marks)

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   A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide (1), produced by a person, product or activity, for example from electricity use, travel and the things we buy (1).

   Marking points:

   • Total greenhouse gases / carbon dioxide
   • Produced by a person, product or activity

   Tip: Mention both what is measured (greenhouse gases) and who or what produces it.

   Write your answer and get it marked

2. Explain two ways local government can reduce energy use. (4 marks)

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   Local councils can build cycle lanes and walking routes, so people make short journeys without a car, leading to less fuel use and lower emissions. They can also install LED street lights and solar panels on public buildings such as schools and hospitals, therefore less electricity is needed from fossil fuel power stations.

   Marking points:

   • Cycle lanes / walking routes
   • Developed: fewer short car journeys, less fuel
   • LED street lights / solar panels on public buildings / recycling schemes / insulating social housing
   • Developed: less electricity from fossil fuels

   Tip: Make sure your examples are local, not national, actions such as taxes or laws.

   Write your answer and get it marked

3. Using named examples, assess how successful sustainable energy schemes have been in a rich country and in a developing country. (8 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Qatar is a rich country whose economy is built on natural gas. It opened the Al Kharsaah solar plant (800 MWp) in October 2022, which can supply about 10% of peak electricity demand and should avoid about 26 million tonnes of CO2 over its life. Solar is suitable because Qatar has strong sunshine and the wealth to invest, and QatarEnergy aims for 5 GW of renewable capacity by 2035. However, dust and heat reduce panel performance, and Qatar still relies heavily on gas, so the scheme is only a partial success so far. Nepal is a developing, mountainous country. Micro hydropower uses steep local rivers to bring electricity to remote villages beyond the national grid. This has been very successful for people: it gives lighting, radios, TVs and mobile phones, computer classes, longer shop hours and mills that replace hard manual work, without large dams. However, when the national grid arrives many customers switch to it, making loans hard to repay, so schemes may not be financially sustainable unless they are connected to the grid. Overall, Nepal's scheme has had a greater impact on people's daily lives, while Qatar's has a bigger effect on emissions, but both are limited: Qatar by its dependence on gas and Nepal by finance.

   Marking points:

   • Qatar: Al Kharsaah solar, 800 MWp, 2022
   • Qatar: about 10% of peak demand / CO2 avoided
   • Qatar suitable: sunshine and wealth
   • Qatar limits: dust, heat, reliance on gas
   • Nepal: micro hydro for remote villages off grid
   • Nepal benefits: lighting, education, businesses, mills
   • Nepal limit: customers switch to grid, loans hard to repay
   • Supported judgement comparing both

   Tip: Use one rich and one developing example, give a benefit and a limit for each, then make a clear overall judgement.

   Write your answer and get it marked

4. For a named developing or emerging country, explain how energy resources are being managed sustainably. (6 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   In Peru, the remote Andean village of Chambamontera had no electricity, because steep slopes and roads that close in winter made a national grid connection economically impractical. With the charity Practical Action, a run-of-the-river micro-hydro scheme was built: river water is diverted down a steep pipe to turn a turbine, without a large dam. It cost about US$51,000, shared between the government, Japanese investment and the community. It is sustainable because it uses a renewable resource, was built with local labour and materials and is cheap to run. Electric lighting replaced kerosene lamps, children can study after dark and new businesses such as coffee processing started. Less wood is burned, so deforestation and soil erosion are reduced. (Nepal's micro hydropower schemes are also a valid example.)

   Marking points:

   • Named developing country and place: Chambamontera, Peru (or Nepal)
   • Energy problem: remote, no grid
   • Solution: run-of-the-river micro-hydro, no large dam
   • Funding or local involvement
   • Renewable, cheap to run, local materials
   • Social and economic benefits
   • Environmental benefit: less fuelwood burned

   Tip: Name the place, explain the problem, the solution and why it is sustainable.

   Write your answer and get it marked

5. Explain which UAE action you think is most important for reducing energy use in the future. (4 marks)

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   Improving energy efficiency in buildings is the most important action, because the UAE has a hot climate and cooling buildings uses a lot of electricity. Green building regulations for new developments and more efficient air conditioning and insulation therefore reduce electricity demand. As the population and number of buildings grow, these savings will add up every year, leading to lower carbon emissions. (Other actions, such as large-scale solar projects, metro systems and electric vehicles, or national sustainability strategies, are also acceptable if justified.)

   Marking points:

   • Chooses one UAE action
   • Explains how it reduces energy use or emissions
   • Links to the UAE's hot climate or growth
   • Justifies why it is the most important

   Tip: Pick one action, explain how it works and say why it matters more than the others.

   Write your answer and get it marked

Coasts introduction, waves and key words

1. Define the term 'deposition'. (2 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Deposition is when waves lose energy and drop the material, such as sand and pebbles, that they have been carrying.

   Marking points:

   • Waves lose energy
   • Drop the material they carry
   • Example of material, such as sand or pebbles

   Tip: Two marks means two parts: the cause and the result.

   Write your answer and get it marked

2. Explain the differences between constructive and destructive waves. (4 marks)

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   Constructive waves have a strong swash and a weak backwash, therefore the swash carries sediment up the beach and the backwash is too weak to remove it, leading to the beach building up. They are low and further apart. Destructive waves have a weak swash and a strong backwash, so the backwash drags sediment off the beach, leading to coastal erosion. They are steep and close together.

   Marking points:

   • Constructive: strong swash, weak backwash
   • Constructive: low, far apart, build beaches
   • Destructive: weak swash, strong backwash
   • Destructive: steep, close together, cause erosion

   Tip: Compare directly, using words such as whereas.

   Write your answer and get it marked

3. Explain how the four processes of erosion wear away a coastline. (6 marks)

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   Hydraulic action happens when waves force air into cracks in the cliff; the air is compressed and then expands quickly as the wave retreats, like a small explosion, therefore the crack widens and pieces break off. Abrasion (corrasion) is when waves throw rocks and pebbles at the cliff, grinding it down like sandpaper, especially during storms. Attrition is when rocks carried by the sea knock against each other, so they become smaller and more rounded, leading to finer sediment that is easier to transport. Solution (corrosion) is when weak acids in seawater dissolve rocks, especially chalk and limestone, so these cliffs are worn away chemically.

   Marking points:

   • Hydraulic action: compressed air in cracks
   • Air expands, crack widens
   • Abrasion: rocks thrown at the cliff
   • Attrition: rocks knock together, smaller and rounder
   • Solution: acids dissolve chalk and limestone
   • Processes explained, not just named

   Tip: Name each process and explain how it works, not just what it is called.

   Write your answer and get it marked

4. Define the terms 'erosion' and 'transportation'. (2 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Erosion is the action of waves wearing away the rocks along the coastline (1). Transportation is the movement of material along the coastline (1).

   Marking points:

   • Erosion: waves wearing away rock
   • Transportation: movement of material along the coast

   Tip: These match the definitions in your class matching task.

   Write your answer and get it marked

5. Explain how constructive waves build up a beach. (4 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Constructive waves are low and further apart, with a lower wave frequency. They have a strong swash, so they carry sand and pebbles up the beach. Their backwash is weak, because much of the water soaks into the beach and the wave has lost energy, therefore it cannot remove the sediment. This leads to material building up over time, forming a wide, gently sloping beach.

   Marking points:

   • Low, far apart, lower frequency
   • Strong swash carries sediment up the beach
   • Weak backwash cannot remove it
   • Builds a wide, gently sloping beach

   Tip: Link the wave's features to what happens to the sediment.

   Write your answer and get it marked

6. Identify which coastal processes happen in the sea and which happen on the land. (2 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   In the sea: erosion, transportation and deposition (1). On the land: weathering and mass movement (1).

   Marking points:

   • Sea: erosion, transportation, deposition
   • Land: weathering, mass movement

   Tip: This is the 'TIF' question from your class matching task.

   Write your answer and get it marked

Coastal processes

1. Identify three ways that material is transported by the sea. (3 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Traction (large rocks rolled along the sea bed), saltation (pebbles bounced along) and suspension (fine material carried in the water). Solution (dissolved material) is also accepted.

   Marking points:

   • Traction
   • Saltation
   • Suspension
   • Solution

   Tip: Identify questions need short answers: one mark for each correct process.

   Write your answer and get it marked

2. Explain how longshore drift moves sediment along a coastline. (4 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   The prevailing wind drives waves towards the beach at an angle. The swash therefore carries sediment up the beach at that same angle. The backwash then drags the sediment straight back down the beach at right angles to the coast because of gravity. This is repeated with every wave, leading to sediment moving along the coast in a zigzag in the direction of the prevailing wind.

   Marking points:

   • Prevailing wind sets wave direction
   • Swash moves sediment up at an angle
   • Backwash returns straight down under gravity
   • Zigzag movement along the coast
   • Repeated over time

   Tip: A simple labelled diagram with arrows can support your explanation.

   Write your answer and get it marked

3. Explain how geology, weather and people influence coastal environments. (8 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Geology affects how quickly a coast erodes. Hard rock such as chalk or limestone erodes slowly, whereas soft rock such as clay erodes quickly, therefore coasts with alternating rock types develop headlands and bays. Rocks with many cracks and joints are eroded faster because hydraulic action can exploit the weaknesses. Weather is also important. Storms bring big destructive waves with strong backwash, leading to rapid erosion and the removal of beaches. Heavy rain saturates cliffs, especially clay, making them heavier and leading to mass movement such as slumping. Cold weather can cause freeze-thaw weathering, which weakens the cliff top. People influence coasts too. Building on cliff tops adds weight and drainage water, increasing the risk of mass movement. Removing sand from beaches takes away natural protection, so waves attack the cliffs. Sea walls protect one place but can trap sediment, leading to beaches further along the coast being starved of sand and eroding faster. Finally, sea-level change alters which parts of the coast the waves can reach.

   Marking points:

   • Hard rock erodes slowly, soft rock quickly
   • Cracks and joints increase erosion
   • Storms bring destructive waves
   • Rain saturates cliffs, causing slumping
   • Freeze-thaw weathering
   • Building and removing sand increase erosion
   • Defences can move erosion along the coast
   • Points developed with consequences

   Tip: Write a developed paragraph for each factor, using because, therefore, leading to.

   Write your answer and get it marked

4. Describe mechanical, chemical and biological weathering on a coastline. (6 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Weathering is the breakdown of rock at or near the surface, in place. Mechanical weathering breaks rock without changing it chemically; for example, in freeze-thaw, water enters cracks, freezes and expands, and after repeated freezing and thawing the rock splits. Chemical weathering changes the rock; for example, rainwater is slightly acidic and slowly dissolves limestone and chalk. Biological weathering is caused by living things; for example, plant roots grow into cracks and widen them, and burrowing animals loosen rock and soil. All three weaken cliffs from above, making erosion and mass movement more likely.

   Marking points:

   • Definition of weathering
   • Mechanical: freeze-thaw described
   • Chemical: acidic rainwater dissolves limestone or chalk
   • Biological: roots or burrowing animals
   • Effect: weakens cliffs, helps erosion and mass movement

   Tip: Give each type a short description and an example.

   Write your answer and get it marked

5. Explain how slumping happens on a cliff made of clay. (4 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   After heavy rain, water soaks into the clay, so the cliff becomes saturated and heavier. Clay does not let water drain through easily, so the water makes the material weaker and slippery. Waves may also erode the base of the cliff, removing support. Therefore a mass of clay slips downhill along a curved surface, rotating as it moves, leaving a step-like cliff profile.

   Marking points:

   • Heavy rain saturates the clay
   • Material becomes heavier and weaker
   • Base eroded by waves removes support
   • Moves along a curved slip surface with rotation

   Tip: Slumping is rotational: always mention the curved surface.

   Write your answer and get it marked

Erosional coastal landforms

1. Identify two landforms produced by erosion on a headland. (2 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   A cave and an arch (also accept stack or stump).

   Marking points:

   • Cave
   • Arch
   • Stack
   • Stump

   Tip: Identify means name them: no explanation needed.

   Write your answer and get it marked

2. Explain how differential erosion forms headlands and bays. (4 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Where bands of hard and soft rock meet the coast at right angles, they erode at different speeds. Soft rock such as clay erodes quickly, therefore it is cut back to form bays. Hard rock such as chalk or limestone is more resistant, so it erodes slowly and is left sticking out as headlands. Once formed, wave energy is concentrated on the headlands and spread out in the bays, leading to beaches forming in the sheltered bays.

   Marking points:

   • Bands of hard and soft rock (discordant coast)
   • Soft rock erodes quickly to form bays
   • Hard rock erodes slowly to form headlands
   • Bays sheltered, beaches form

   Tip: Name example rock types to show precise knowledge.

   Write your answer and get it marked

3. Explain the formation of a stack and a stump. You may use a labelled diagram. (8 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Headlands are exposed to strong wave attack. Waves exploit a weakness such as a crack or joint in the rock by hydraulic action, as air is compressed in the crack and then expands, and by abrasion, as waves throw rocks at it. Therefore the crack widens and grows into a cave. Continued erosion deepens the cave until it breaks right through the headland, leading to an arch. The roof of the arch is weakened by erosion at its base and by weathering from above, such as freeze-thaw, until it can no longer support itself and collapses. This leaves a stack: a pillar of rock separated from the headland. Waves then erode a notch at the base of the stack by hydraulic action and abrasion, so it eventually collapses, leading to a stump, which is covered at high tide. For example, Old Harry Rocks in Dorset is a chalk stack.

   Marking points:

   • Waves attack a crack or joint on a headland
   • Hydraulic action explained
   • Abrasion explained
   • Crack widens into a cave
   • Cave breaks through to form an arch
   • Arch roof weakened by erosion and weathering, collapses to form a stack
   • Stack base eroded, collapses to form a stump
   • Correct sequence with linked stages

   Tip: Number each stage, name the process each time, and add a labelled sequence diagram.

   Write your answer and get it marked

4. Explain how wave-cut notches and wave-cut platforms form. (4 marks)

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   Waves attack the foot of a cliff between high and low tide by hydraulic action and abrasion, cutting a wave-cut notch. The rock above the notch is left overhanging and unsupported, therefore it eventually collapses. The cliff retreats inland, and the process repeats. This leads to a gently sloping, rocky wave-cut platform being left at the foot of the cliff, exposed at low tide.

   Marking points:

   • Erosion at the foot between high and low tide
   • Hydraulic action and abrasion named
   • Notch forms, overhang collapses
   • Cliff retreats; repeated
   • Wave-cut platform exposed at low tide

   Tip: A labelled diagram with tide lines can support this answer.

   Write your answer and get it marked

5. A photograph of a chalk headland shows: A, a hollow at sea level in the cliff; B, a gap right through the end of the headland; C, a pillar of rock standing separately in the sea. Identify landforms A, B and C. (3 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   A is a cave (1). B is an arch (1). C is a stack (1).

   Marking points:

   • A: cave
   • B: arch
   • C: stack

   Tip: Learn what each landform looks like so you can recognise it in a photograph.

   Write your answer and get it marked

Skills: graphs, data, photos and articles

1. Primary employment in a country fell from 60% to 30% between 1980 and 2020. Calculate the change in percentage points and state whether this is an increase or decrease. (2 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   60 minus 30 is 30, so primary employment fell by 30 percentage points, which is a decrease.

   Marking points:

   • Correct working: 60 minus 30
   • 30 percentage points
   • Decrease

   Tip: Show your working and include the unit.

   Write your answer and get it marked

2. Explain the difference between Malthus' and Boserup's views on population and resources. (4 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Malthus was a pessimist. He believed population grows faster than resources such as food, therefore population would eventually overtake food supply, leading to a crisis such as famine, disease or war until population fell back. Boserup was an optimist. She believed that however much population increased, people would invent new technologies to increase food supply, so resources would not run out; on her graph, food supply rises in steps.

   Marking points:

   • Malthus: population grows faster than food
   • Malthus: crisis (famine, disease, war) reduces population
   • Boserup: population pressure leads to invention
   • Boserup: food supply rises in steps, resources will not run out

   Tip: Explain each view, then make the contrast clear.

   Write your answer and get it marked

3. Explain how numerical data can be used to profile a country's level of development. (6 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Several indicators can be combined. GDP per capita shows wealth per person, so a high figure suggests a high-income country. Employment structure is useful because the Clark-Fisher model shows that as countries develop, employment shifts from the primary sector to the secondary and then the tertiary sector. Therefore a country with 65% primary jobs is likely to be pre-industrial, while one with 80% tertiary jobs is likely to be post-industrial. Energy use per person rises with wealth and industry, so low energy use and high fuelwood use suggest a low-income country. A high level of informal employment also suggests a developing country, because there are not enough formal jobs. Using several indicators together gives a more reliable profile than any single figure.

   Marking points:

   • GDP per capita shows wealth
   • Employment structure and Clark-Fisher model
   • Primary-dominated = pre-industrial; tertiary-dominated = post-industrial
   • Energy use per person / fuelwood use
   • Informal employment
   • Several indicators more reliable

   Tip: Link each indicator to what it tells you about development.

   Write your answer and get it marked

4. Describe how population and food supply change on a line graph showing Malthus' theory. (4 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   Population rises steeply, curving upwards, while food supply rises more slowly and steadily in a straight line. At first food supply is above population, but the gap narrows over time. The population line eventually crosses the food supply line: this is the crisis point. After the crisis, famine, disease or war cause population to fall back below the food supply line.

   Marking points:

   • Population rises steeply (curved)
   • Food supply rises steadily (straight)
   • Lines cross at a crisis point
   • Population then falls back

   Tip: Describe each line, then say what happens where they meet.

   Write your answer and get it marked

5. Explain how a photograph and a newspaper article could be used as evidence about informal employment in Mumbai. (4 marks)

   Show the model answer and marking points

   A photograph of Dharavi could show street vendors, waste pickers and small workshops, which is evidence of the types of informal jobs and the crowded, small-scale conditions. It only shows one place at one moment, so it may not represent the whole city. A newspaper article could give facts such as estimates of how many people work informally, and quotes from workers. However, the article should be checked for its date, its author and any bias, and facts should be separated from opinions.

   Marking points:

   • Photo shows types of informal work and conditions
   • Limitation of a photo: one place, one moment
   • Article gives facts and quotes
   • Check article for date, author, bias, fact versus opinion

   Tip: Say what each source shows and how reliable it is.

   Write your answer and get it marked

Labelled diagram: crack, cave, arch, stack, stump

Practise drawing it yourself: draw the headland, label each stage in order, and name the process at each arrow (hydraulic action, abrasion, collapse).

My checklist (39 points)

From the class checklist. Rate each point R, A or G and tick it when you can explain it with an example. Saved on this device.

1.1 Economic sectors and location

• Define primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary employment, with an example of eachLesson →
• Explain the Clark-Fisher model and how employment changes as countries developLesson →
• Compare employment structures in countries at different levels of developmentLesson →
• Explain factors affecting the location of economic activity in each sectorLesson →
• Explain how and why the location of economic activity changes over timeLesson →
• Explain why employment changes: raw materials, globalisation, mechanisation, demographic change, government policyLesson →

1.2 Changing economies, impacts and resources

• Impacts of sector shifts in a named developed (UK) and emerging (China) countryLesson →
• Define informal employment and explain why it occursLesson →
• Characteristics of informal employment in a named megacity (Mumbai)Lesson →
• Advantages and disadvantages of informal employmentLesson →
• Malthus' theory of population and resourcesLesson →
• Boserup's theory of population and resourcesLesson →

1.3 Energy demand, supply and sustainability

• Energy gap and energy securityLesson →
• Why energy demand and production vary globally (population, wealth, technology)Lesson →
• Non-renewable sources: coal, oil, natural gas, uranium, shale gas and oilLesson →
• Renewable sources: solar, wind, HEP, geothermal, biomassLesson →
• Advantages and disadvantages of renewable and non-renewable energyLesson →
• How countries develop a balanced energy mixLesson →
• Managing energy sustainably: education, efficiency and conservationLesson →

Case studies and skills

• Energy management in a developed country and a developing or emerging country (Qatar, Nepal; UK, China)Lesson →
• Use numerical economic data to profile a countryLesson →
• Interpret photographs and newspaper articles as evidenceLesson →
• Interpret line graphs of population and resources over timeLesson →

2.1 Coastal processes

• Wave action and how waves affect the coastLesson →
• Define erosion, transportation and depositionLesson →
• Longshore driftLesson →
• Mechanical, chemical and biological weatheringLesson →
• Mass movement: sliding and slumpingLesson →
• How geology, weather, people and sea-level change influence coastsLesson →

2.2 Erosional landforms

• Differential erosion: headlands and baysLesson →
• Wave-cut notches and wave-cut platformsLesson →
• Caves, arches, stacks and stumps in sequenceLesson →
• A labelled diagram of an erosional landform (see the diagram below)Lesson →
• Recognise headlands, bays, cliffs, platforms, caves, arches, stacks and stumpsLesson →

Exam skills

• Define key terms accuratelyLesson →
• Explain processes in sequence: because, therefore, leading toLesson →
• Use specific examples and evidenceLesson →
• Interpret maps, photos, diagrams, graphs and dataLesson →
• Write developed answers that explain linksLesson →

More on the same topics

• Economic sectors and their location 17 min
• Economic change, impacts and population theories 17 min
• The energy gap and energy security 16 min
• Energy: sources and the energy mix 17 min
• Energy: demand, impacts and sustainable management 18 min
• Coastal processes and landforms 18 min
• Coasts: weathering, mass movement and geology 16 min